Until the second half of the century XIX, the Tsarist Russia had directed its trade with Turkestan that was centred in Astrahan through two routes: 1) The trade caravans that set off from Astrahan would pass from the Kazakh lands in the north of Aral and they would reach to the Central Asian cities. However, since the beginning of the century XVIII, the Russians started to invade the Kazakh lands. Therefore, the Kazakh people attacked to the caravans and this route posed a dangerous threat for trade. 2) The trade caravans that set off from Astrahan would pass through the northern section of the Caspian Sea with boats and they would arrive in Hive and then, they would transit to the other cities.
The trade route that connected the Caucasus to the Central Asia and Iran over the Caspian Sea passed through the Turkmen lands. In addition, the independent Turkmenistan stimulated the desires of the other Turkestan Khanates for independence. Considering these conditions, the Tsarist Russia had planned to establish dominion over Turkmenistan.
Therefore, the Tsarist Russia that reformed its army between the years of 1858-1860 invaded the Central Asia in bits between the years of 1864-1873.
The Tsarist Russia that tried to reach to the Iranian borders had started its activities about the status quo of Turkmenistan and Turkmen people in the years of 1820 and 1830 before the Crimean War.
Captain Muravyev had travelled in Turkmenistan and Hive and Count Ignatiev had travelled in the Central Asia in the year of 1858 and they arranged detailed reports. The Major Dandaville that came to Turkmenistan in the year of 1859 had presented a report stating that Kizilsu should be used as a military and commercial castle that would provide the penetration of the Tsarist Russia into Turkmenistan. Upon these reports that it obtained, the Tsarist Russian government resolved for the invasion of Kizilsu and the usage of this place as a military base. They wanted that the Turkmens would be informed as if this place would be used as a trade centre. The main purpose of the Russians was the military concentration in Kizilsu in the east of the Caspian Sea. Thus, they aimed to capture Hive that they planned to invade after Hokand and Bokhara.
When the forces of the Tsarist Russia landed in Kizilsu, they invaded Daş-Avrat and Molla Kara that were located on the way extending towards the Kopetdağı Mountain with a strategic position. In the spring of 1871, Çekişler located in the southeast coasts of the Caspian Sea that was one of the important centres of population pertaining to Yamud Turkmens was invaded by the Russian forces under the command of Colonel Stoletov. After a while, Colonel Stoletov was called back to the Caucasus and Colonel Markozov with a firm nature was assigned in the place of him. As a result of a series of military expeditions that were started in September 1871, all the Turkmen villages and castles located between Kizilsu-Hive and the important centres of population such as Gözlü-Ata, Çagil, Kam Şebşen, Uzun Kuyu, and Sarıkamış were captured by the Russians.
Pursuant to the capture of Hokand and Bokhara, the Tsarist Russia advanced from the eastern coasts of the Caspian Sea towards the central regions with a rapid pace. Upon this progress, the Turkmen leader Nur Verdi Khan met with Hive Khan, Seyyid Muhammed Rahim im Hive. Pursuant to this meeting, Hive Khan Orenburg sent envoys to the Russian headquarters in Tbilisi with the messages of friendship. The Russian competent authorities notified the ultimatum of the Grand Duke Michail who was the brother of the Tsar. Accordingly; 1) Hive Khan would declare his friendship with the Russian Government through a firman, 2) All the Russian hostages would be set free, 3)The reason for the neglect of reply to the letter that had been written by General Kaufman, General Governor of Turkestan would be expressed and the proper pardons would be apologised.
Pursuant to the aforesaid development, Colonel Markozov received new directives from the Grand Duke Michail in Tbilisi. Then, he returned to Çekişler in June 1872. According to the orders that he had received, he would complete the diffusion of the Russian influence in the east of the Caspian Sea and therefore, he would increase the pressure imposed over Hive Khan. Upon these event, Hive Khanate that was composed of Turkmen and Uzbek people could not resist against the blockade by the forces of Tsarist Russia in April and May 1873 and they gave in. Some of Hive people acknowledged to have accepted the Russian domination while some others passed over the Karakum Desert and they joined to the other Turkmen tribes.
The Tsarist Russia founded the Governorship of the Region beyond Caspian Sea that was subject to the Caucasian Military Governorship in the year of 1874. Therefore, it was explicitly indicated that Turkmenistan would be invaded. As a matter of fact, the aforesaid Governorship started to interfere in the internal affairs of the Turkmen people. Therefore, the ordinary Turkmen Council that convened under the chairmanship of Nur Verdi Khan at the end of June in 1874 organised a general plenary meeting about the policy to be followed against the Russians. As a result of this meeting, the defence of independence against the Russians was unanimously adopted. Pursuant to this meeting, the Turkmens sent a committee to the Afghanistan Emirates under the domination of Great Britain in order to provide the shelter of the English umbrella and they declared that they were ready to recognise the Afghan domination. However, English authorities that considered that it was inappropriate to damage the relations with Russians rejected this demand of Turkmen people. Due to the negative stance of English people, a Turkmen committee went to Teheran in the spring of 1876 and they asked help from Iran. Upon this event, Zinovyev who was the Ambassador of Tsarist Russia forwarded a memorandum to Iran and declared that an agreement to be concluded would not be recognised by the government. The raids against the Turkmen villages were also increased in this period.
In order to establish dominion over the Turkmen people, the Tsarist Russia organised a great military operation under the command of General Lomaking in the spring of 1877. The Turkmen people who were timely informed about the activation of the Russian forces evacuated the border towns of Bami, Burma, Kizil-Arvat, etc. Then, they retreated to the fortified castle of Gok-Tepe. The Russian forces penetrated into Kizil-Arvat on the date of 7th May 1877. The first serious fight took place between the Russians and the Turkmen people under the command of Nur Verdi Khan in Kizil-Arvat on the date of 12th May 1877. Turkmens were defeated against the superior firepower of the Russians. However, due to the War in 1877-78 (93 War) that broke out between the Ottoman State and the Tsarist Russia, most of the Russian troops in the Turkmen lands and General Lomakin were called back to the Caucasus.
Upon the retreat of the Russian troops, the Turkmens took a short break. However, these troops started to return to the eastern coasts of the Caspian Sea at the end of the year of 1878. Due to the influence of the victory that was won against the Ottoman State, the Tsarist Russia resolved for the invasion of Turkmenistan on the date of 2nd February 1879. General Lazaryev, the Commander of the 1st Army Crops of the Caucasian Army that was known for his harshness in the wars against the Ottoman State and the Imam Shamil were assigned as the commander of the military expedition to be carried out in the spring of 1879. Lazaryev assigned General Count Broch as the commander of the infantry troops, General Price Witgenstein as the commander of the cavalry troops, Colonel Dolgorukov as the commander of the vanguard troops and General Prince Lomakin that was the Military Governor of the Region beyond Caspian Sea as the counsellor. Then, he started his preparations for war in the beginning of March in 1879. In order to divide the Turkmen troops into two branches, he wired telegrams to General Kaufman who was the General Governor of Turkestan. He demanded that they would pretend as if they would attack towards Merv from the side of River Oxus.
The ordinary Turkmen Council that gathered in Merv resolved that Nur Verdi Khan would encounter the Russians in the east in the castle of Merv, and his son, Berdi Murat Khan would encounter them in the west in the castle of Gok-Tepe. Pursuant to the death of General Lazaryeb due to the blood poisoning on the date of 26th August 1879, General Lomakin took over the command. The Russian forces attacked towards the castle of Gok-Tepe on the date of 9th September 1879. Despite the superior Russian firepower that was composed of artillery pieces, machine gun and modern rifles, this attack was repulsed by the Turkmens with the sacrifice of nearly 4000 people including Berdi Murad Khan versus the sacrifice of 185 Russians people.
Upon the failure in the capture of the castle of Gok-Tepe, General Lomakin was dismissed from his post. In his place, General M.D. Skobelev who had fought against Osman Pasha in Plevna in the course of the Ottoman-Russian War in 1877-78 was assigned as the commander.
General M. D. Skobelev changed the troops that were spiritually depressed with the new and fresh troops in the year of 1880 and he started the installation of a railway line that extended from the east of the Caspian Sea towards the castle of Gok-Tepe. He completed his reparations for war in April 1880 and penetrated into the Turkmen lands. Upon the sudden illness and death of Nur Verdi Khan on the date of 5th May 1880, Turkmen people elected is son, Mahdum Kulu as the Khan and assigned an advisory board that was composed of three persons. Then, thy continued their preparations for defence against the Russian forces. However, General M.D. Skobelev had a superior firepower, minelaying defence and a disciplined army. Therefore, he captured the castle of Gok-Tepe as a result of the war that started on the date of 1st January 1881 and ended on the date of 25th January with the sacrifice of 289 Russian people versus 34.500 Turkmen people including women and children. The operation that was initiated was maintained in the further periods and all the Turkmen lands extending towards Ashkhabad were captured until the date of 30th January 1881. Tikma Serdar surrendered in April 1881 and after a few months, Mahdum Kulu Khan surrendered to the Russians. The demands of the Turkmens in the region of Merv that asked help from the English authorities in a hopeless manner were rejected by the Teheran Ambassador of the Great Britain. As a result of the activities of Alihanov who was a captain in the Russian army, these Turkmen people surrendered to the Russians under the leadership of Gulcemal Hanim who was the widow wife of Nur Verdi Khan in January 1884. Therefore, the invasion of Turkmenistan that was started in the year of 1860 came to an end in the year of 1884.
In the period of Tsarist Russia, the government level was composed of the bureaucracy of the Russians and a pressure period was experienced with the abundance of abuses and corruptions. As a matter of fact, the committee under the chairmanship of Count K.K. Pahlen of German origin that was sent to Turkestan pursuant to the Russo-Japanese war in 1905 determined that the most terrible corruptions in Turkestan were observed in Turkmenistan. Therefore, they led the judicial judgement of the two-thirds of the officers and bureaucrats that were charged within this region before the court due to the crimes and offences of theft, bribe, forgery, and murder.