As it can be understood from the names of ranks and offices in the Islam-Turkish states and the work of Nizamul-mulk called as Siyasetname (Book of Policy), Gazneli Turkish states that essentially continued the Islamic-Iranian tradition in the organisation of the government and the arrangement of the army had constituted a model for the Seljuk States and therefore, the following Turkish-Islamic political organisations. Nevertheless, there were some Turkish terms such as atabey (tutor), subaşı (police superintendent), çavuş (sergeant), tuğra (rulers signature), ulag (messenger), cufga, etc. that had been used in the period of Seljuk State. Furthermore, apart from the Turkmen Principalities the beys of which had Turkish titles, the Turkish titles had been observed for a long time in Delhi Sultanate at least in terminology due to the continuous influence of Turkestan. Ruler and Palace
The most perfect state organisation was achieved in the period of Great Seljuk Empire. In this period, the prayers would be delivered in the name of the sultan (Melikshah, Sencer; Great Sultan=Es-sultan'ül-azam) all around the country and the coins would be minted in his name. Sultans monogram that was composed of its name would be affixed to the firmans and the resolutions of the Great Divan (central government). Sultan would take a Muslim name besides his Turkish name, and he would use the titles that were entitled to him by the caliph on the occasion of the approvement of his sultanate by the caliphate. Çetr (imperial umbrella) was held over his head in the course of the wars and journeys and the musical band (nöbet = trumpet) that always attended him would play and blow trumpets at 5 prayers times a day. The melik governors could only play and blow trumpets 3 times a day. Sultans would receive the staff officers of the state and the commanders in specific days of the week, and he would listen to the complaints of the people. He would appoint the Muslim judges, allocate the feoffs, and approve the domination of state rulers ad the administrative posts of the melik governors and he also would chair the high court that dealt with the offences committed against the state.
Government
The government that was called as "Divan-ı saltanat" (Great Divan) was composed of 4 Divans that were connected to Dîvân-ı Vezaret" (Vizierate Council) that was chaired by the vizier titled as sahip Divan-ı Saltanat (or Hâce-i buzurg). These 4 Divans were as follows:
1- Dîvân-ı Tuğra (it was called as Dîvân-ı inşa, and Dîvân-ı risâlet in some of the states: Internal and external communications),
2- Dîvân-ı İstîfa (finance). It would manage the Harç (expenditure) expense treasury in which the taxes collected from the people were accumulated and the Asıl (Main) (reserve) treasury pertaining to the taxes, presents, etc. collected from the feoff lands and the subject governments and it would regulate the general expenditures of the state.
3- Dîvân-ı Arz-ül-ceyş (Military Affairs),
4- Dîvân-ı işrâf (General supervision). In this divan, all the state officials and transactions apart from the military and legal affairs were checked under the control of an independent supervision institution. This control and supervision are of great significance. The country was divided into provinces with the leaders called as şihne (military governor) in the capital cities of these provinces that were connected to Great Divan and the regions under the government of melik (prince) governors. There was a person called as amid that was responsible for the civil administration in every city and town; an amil (agent) that was responsible for the financial affairs; a reis (chief) that was elected by the people and a muhtesip that organised the municipality affairs. There were regents, deputies, registrars, collectors, etc. that were widespread in the country with various duties and they had a high number in total. The units that supplemented the governmental organisation were the express intelligence service that was composed of peyk (messenger) and perende people, a regular network of courier (postal service), the patrols on the roads that had military and commercial significance, and ribat (fortified inns) that were constructed in the requisite places for the permanent protection of the public order, and the secret intelligence agents that were called as münhi.
Administration of Justice
Justice was divided into two as canonical jurisprudence and martial jurisprudence. The Muslim judges would hear the cases related with the canonical law. Their leader was called as "Kaadî'l-kudât" and he would be the chairman of the court in the centre (in Baghdad in the period of Seljuk State) and supervise all the other Muslim judges. The Muslim judges were also charged with the tasks of the administration of the affairs related with inheritance, donations, charities and foundations, and the organisation of trust deeds of pious foundations. The resolutions of the Muslim judges were undisputable.
The cases related with the members of the army were heard by the chief military judge. There were some separate courts that were charged with the martial and legal affairs. This organisation was administered by "Emîr-i Dâd" (Ministry of Justice) and there were his regents and military polices in the rural regions of the country. The political crimes that were beyond this organisation were resolved in the personal court that was chaired by the sultan. It should be pointed out that the persons charged with the affairs of justice and jurisprudence should not have any relation with the Great Divan or the provincial Divans, in other words, they should not have any relation with the government. Therefore, it was possible to manage the justice affairs successfully without subjection to any political or administrative pressures.
This governmental organisation that we have tried to explain in brief was maintained in the Turkish-Islamic states and even in the Middle-East Mongolian organisation until the period of the Ottoman State despite some trivial changes and the modifications of the names with the similar functions.
Army
the beginning, the armies of the Kara-Hanli State, Turkmen Principalities and the Anatolian Seljuk State were composed of Turks. The native groups constituted the majority within the army of the Gazneli State. Actually, Sultan Mahmud who essentially had to lean on the foreign groups had required crowded and conservative Muslim soldiers in order to organise his famous military expeditions against the Indian rajahs who were affluent and idol worshippers. In that period, Mahmud had benefited from the supporters of Kerramilik sect that had become widespread in Khorasan. Furthermore, he sent his fellows to the Islam countries and collected ghazi people. The number of his forces would increase to exorbitant figures upon the participation of those who voluntarily attended his army (Mutavvia= Volunteers). These volunteers would only take share from the spoils. However, the army of the brigade guards pertaining to Sultan Mahmud had been a model for the Seljuk State and this army was composed of the people who were levied among various ethnical groups and then trained with a special training.
In the period of Great Sultan Melikshah, the Seljuk armies had become the biggest military forces of the Middle Ages. Within this army, there was the army of the brigade guards that were ready to war at any time who were levied among various tribes and subjected to special palace training in the ceremonies and protocols under the command and education of the unique commanders called as Gulamanı saray that were directly connected to the sultan. Furthermore, there were the soldiers of the princes, sihne (governors) and the state staff officers and the forces of the subject governments.
The Vizier Nizâm'ül-mülk had mentioned about the advantages and benefits of the institution of the brigade guards in Gazneli army within his work titled as Siyasetname (Book of Policy). He had recommended the recruitment of a group of Turkmens due to the fact that they were of the same race with the sultans. Thus, it has been understood that the brigade guards were mostly composed of foreigners. Each member of these brigade guards was entitled with a feoff lands in various corners of the empire. Although the Turkmen beys had sometimes been rebellious (for example, Artuk Bey and Ebul-Kasim against Sultan Melikshah), it is significantly interesting that the commanders of the Gulaman-ı Saray (palace commanders) and the brigade of guards were unconditionally faithful to their sultans. Furthermore, there was a very crowded unit composed of cavalry forces (Sipahiyan) that were widespread all over the empire and that subsisted themselves in respect of nourishment and equipment from their feoff lands that were entitled to them.
very important innovation that was provided in the military organisation in the period of Seljuk State was this military feoff. This system was a kid of donation of land that enabled the nourishment and equipment of very crowded armies without incurring any burden for the state. On the other hand, this system enabled the progress of the country as a rich country developed with public works through the efforts of the liege subjects since the taxes would increase in proportion with the productive output. It has been understood that the Seljuk procedure that was different from Islamic feoffs was the adaptation of the ancient Turkish land laws to the next conditions. Moreover, paid soldiers (Haşer) could also be recruited among the people in case of necessities. To the Seljuk armies, lets add the Turkmens that had accomplished great conquests since the beginning of the state until its end and provided unique services as the marksmen vanguard forces under the command of their beys especially in the forefronts (borders). Therefore, it would be much clearer to comprehend the greatness of the military power of the Great Seljuk army that was based on the ancient Turkish tenner system.
The army in Delhi sultanate was composed of Turks with the majority of Kalaç people and it has been understood that the military successes were easily accomplished in India. According to the statement of Sultan Balaban, 7-8 thousands of Turkish cavalrymen were superior to 200 thousands of Indian soldiers. The Poet Husrev-i Dihlevî stated that Indian versus Turk is just like a gazelle versus a lion. In the last periods of the sultanate, the army had to reinforce its forces from the native people since the emigrations of Turks from Central Asia had become infrequent. Therefore, the domination was attenuated and finally, it was transferred to the foreign and native groups.
the Harezmshah State, the core of the main marksmen in the army was composed of steppe Turks like Kangli, Kimek and Kipchak-Uran, etc. as well as the military units composed of the native people. This organisation was initiated in the period of Sultan Tekiş (1172-1200) and their number gradually increased with the increase observed in the steppe people that rushed to immigrate to the lands of Harezmshah State in the capacity of the relatives of his wife, Terken Hatun. Therefore, this military organisation had become the main basis of his son, Alaud-din Muhammed. However, this army that provided a great empire to Harezmshah had mostly taken side with Terken Hatun and they could not ever blend and get on well with the native people. Therefore, Sultan Muhammed was totally destroyed by the Mongolians and he lost his state. Thus, they had facilitated the establishment of the Mongolian domination in the entire Middle East.
Egypt, great significance was attached to the organisation of the army from Kipchak Turks. Therefore, great attention was paid to the maintenance of the relation with Kipchak-steppe lands (Deşt-i Kipchak) that was the homeland of Sultan Kutuz, Baybars and Kalavun. They would conclude agreements with the Byzantine in order to provide the transportation of the Turkish young people from those lands to Egypt through maritime lines. Of course, all of the young people that were brought from Kipchak-steppe lands were not of Turkish origin at all. There were Slavs, Greeks and especially Circassians among them. However, their garrisons were different. Turks would dwell and reside in an island (Memalik-i Burciye) over the Nile River. There were some cavalrymen and also Mutavvia (Volunteers) that participated in the army in the state of wars within the provinces.
for navy, the most significant naval forces were the stream fleet of Ganzeli Sultan Mahmud that was arranged in Indus against Catlar and the small-scale naval forces that were initiated to be constructed in the port of Kius (Gemlik Gulf) in Iznik by Ebul-Kaasim that was the regent of Suleyman-Shah in the Seljuk State. However, these naval forces were totally destroyed by the Byzantine immediately. However, in the period of these Islam-Turkish states, the most powerful navy that could compete against the Byzantine was built by Caka Bey wgo was the bey of Izmir. Furthermore, the State of Egypt had also had a powerful navy. Particularly, the army was equipped with the weapons of the highest technology in the period of Sultan Baybars. In this peirod, various ships were built and constructed in shipyards that were established in the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea.